Because of a comment posted to the blog of a young teenager here on Shoutpost who was looking for answers on sexual orientation and received a blatantly bigoted response, I felt the need to respond.  The following is a paper I recently wrote for one of my psychology classes on sexual orientation.  Unfortunately, in spite of what everyone thinks they know about it, even scientists still aren't quite sure of its origin.    

Introduction

According to the American Psychological Association¹, sexual orientation is defined as "feelings and self-concepts" as well as "...an enduring emotional, romantic, sexual or affectional [sic] attraction toward others...."  Further, it occurs along a continuum that includes heterosexuality (attraction to the opposite gender), homosexuality (attraction to the same gender), bisexuality (attraction to both genders), and asexuality (attraction to neither gender).

When speaking of sexual orientation, one is generally referring to orientations other than heterosexuality, i.e.: homosexuality (which will hereafter also include bisexuality and asexuality).  While heterosexuality seems to be the predominant sexual orientation (Michael, et al, 1996)², Bullough, et al (2003)³ state that at least one out of ten adults - or several million individuals out of the population in the United States -- is known to be homosexual, though the actual number is not known.

Although homosexuality seems to predominate in humanity, the animal kingdom is known, also, to exhibit a sexual orientation different than heterosexuality.   (Ford & Beach, 1951)⁴.

Brief History

The ancients (and even some modern cultures) did not have a specific term for sexual relations with someone of the same gender, though what later became known as homosexuality* has been a part of most of the worlds' cultures for thousands of years (Boswell, 1980; Halsall, 1987)⁵. 

The concept of homosexuality, in fact, was practiced openly by many up until approximately the late twelfth century when the Christian Church banned the practice as ‘unnatural' (Herek, 2006)⁶. 

Lack of Evidence for Psychopathology in Homosexuality

According to Ford and Beach (1951), homosexuality in some form was considered acceptable and even normal in nearly 64% of the 76 societies studied. 

Approximately six years later, Evelyn Hooker, PhD (1957)⁷ published the first empirical study that ultimately showed that homosexuality does not have a psychopathological origin.  Since that time, scientists have still not been able to identify psychopathological causal factors (Wade & Tavris, 2005; Gonsiorek, 1982)⁸.  Given that this is the case, what has been determined?

*The term "homosexual" was coined in 1869 by the writer/lawyer, Karl Maria Kertbeny (1824-1882). 

Biological Causal Factors

While Simon LeVay (1991) and Allen & Gorski (1992)⁹ discovered a correlation between sexual orientation and specific areas of the brain in gay males, the findings were not duplicated in subsequent studies.  Later studies (Collaer & Hines, 1995; Meyer- Bahlburg, et al, 1995)¹⁰, indicated that there might be some association between masculinizing hormones such as androgyns, which caused female fetuses to become bisexual or lesbian.  Yet a further study (Peplau, et al, 2000)¹¹ revealed that not all females who are exposed to androgyns in utero become either bisexual or lesbian; nor were most lesbian or bisexual women exposed to androgyns.

Genetic Causal Factors

One of the most well-known studies in the determination of sexual orientation involved the of a genetic marker on the X chromosome in gay brothers (Hamer, et al, 1993; Hu, et al, 1995)¹².  Yet, once again, a further study (Rice, et al, 1999)¹³ of 52 pairs of gay brothers was unable to duplicate the previous findings.  Subsequent studies showed that homosexuals, in general, do not necessarily derive from gay parents, nor do they have siblings who are gay, yet they are more often likely to be heterosexual (Peplau, et al, 2000). 

Environment and Culture

Many social theorists believe that the environment in which an individual is raised can directly influence his/her sexuality (Johnson, 2003)¹⁴.  However, various studies have shown that homosexuality or the differentiation in sexual orientation is not caused by such things as being seduced by an older adult (Rind, Tromovitch & Bauserman, 1998)¹⁵, childhood same-sex play (Lamb, 2002)¹⁵, being smothered by one's mother or not having a father figure while growing up.  Additionally, neither is it a result of any experiences we might have with our parents as Freud believed.  Freud, however, did agree with Havelock Ellis who believed that homosexuality was not a disease (Herek, 2006), a conclusion with which many scientists today agree (Mondimore, 1996)¹⁶, and which was borne out in 1973 (Herek, 2006; see "Removal From the DSM") by the deletion of the DSM [Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders] entry describing homosexuality has having a pathological derivation.

Conclusion

Though there is some evidence for both  biology and genetics as well as an environmental and cultural influence as causes for the differentiation in sexual orientation, not enough evidence has been accrued to date, to prove the case satisfactorily, one way or the other.  Consequently, scientists have chosen to admit that at this point, they are unsure of the cause of homosexuality or sexual orientation (Wade & Tavris, 2005). 

References

¹American Psychological Association: What is Sexual Orientation?

² Heterosexuality as a Predominant Model in History

³Lockhaven University of Pennsylvania, Bullough, et al; Heterosexual vs. Homosexual

⁴ Ford, C.S., & Beach, F.A. (1951). Patterns of Sexual Behavior. New York: Harper & Brothers.

⁵ Boswell, J. (1980). Christianity, social tolerance and homosexuality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    -- Mesopotamian Law and Homosexuality, Halsall, (1987); H.W.F Saggs, The Greatest That Was Babylon, (New York: Hawthorn, 1962), 212;  

⁶Gregory M. Herek, PhD (2006); Facts Homosexuality and Mental Health

^{Footnote, p. 1}There seems to be some controversy over the exact date the word homosexuality was created.  Some sources claim 1892 as its creation date, while the majority claim 1869.

⁷  Evelyn Hooker, PhD information

⁸ Carole Wade & Carol Tavris, Psychology; Pearson Custom Publishing/Prentice Hall, 2005; 12: 448. Gonsiorek, J.C. (1982). Results of psychological testing on homosexual populations. American Behavioral Scientist, 25 (4), 385-396.

⁹ Simon LeVay, A Difference in Hypothalmic Structure Between Heterosexual and Homosexual Men 

     -- Allen, L. S.; Gorski, R. A.: Sexual orientation and the size of   the anterior commissure in the human brain. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 89:   7199-7202, 1992.

¹⁰ Collaer, M.L. & Hines, M., 1995;  Human Behavioral Sex Differences; A Role for Gonadal Hormones During Early Development? Psychological Bulletin, 118: 55-107.

     ^-- Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F. L. et al (1995); Prenatal estrogens and the development of           homosexual orientation.  Developmental Psychology, 31: 12-21.          

¹¹ Peplau, L.A. et al (2000); The Development of Sexual Orientation in Women; Annual Review of Sex Research, 10: 70-99.

¹² Hamer, D.H. et al (1993); A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science, 261, 321-327.

     -- Hu, S., et al (1995); Linkage between sexual orientation and chromosome Xq28 in males but not in females.  Nature Genetics, 11, 248-256.

¹³ Rice,G., et al (1999); Male homosexuality: absence of linkage to microsatellite markers at Xq28; Science 284, 665-667.

¹⁴ Ryan D. Johnson, 2003; Homosexuality: Nature or Nurture; AllPsyche Journal;

¹⁵ Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., & Bauserman, R. (1998); A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 22-53.

     --         Lamb, Sharon (2002) The secret lives of girls. New York: The Free Press

There seems to be no little controversy over the results of the former study, however.  See for further info.

¹⁶ Francis  Mark Mondimore, MD,  A Natural History of Homsexuality; Johns Hopkins University Press. 

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Addendum:  The older I get, the more I realize that I don't know everything there is to know about anything; and in many cases I know nothing at all.  Yet it seems that so many individuals today hold such blindly dogmatic and rigid opinions and beliefs, often about subjects about which they know little or nothing themselves and haven't bothered to research.  Generally these individuals base their beliefs on what they've been taught by their parents, religious institutions, society and/or friends, rarely venturing to think outside the proverbial box. 

Oftentimes, too, many of those who slander, defame and otherwise denigrate another because of that person's sexual orientation are angry at themselves or society for various reasons.  Sometimes they're merely angry at God for seemingly forcing them into a 'mold of bitter making,' preventing them from expressing the highest aspect of their True Selves.

Often the Bible is cited as the predominant reason for shunning homosexuals or anyone who is 'different.'  And yet even that stance flies completely in the face of what Jesus Christ taught about Love and acceptance of others, including our enemies. 

What so many don't realize is that, unknowingly, you may have many friends who are homosexual or bisexual, yet you continue to associate with them.  The bigots, of course, will adamantly state that they wouldn't continue to associate with someone who was known to be homosexual.  But why?  If they were good enough to be your friend if they were heterosexual, what suddenly changed?  Those with different orientations are no different than you.

For the record:  I am bisexual and have many friends of all sexual orientations -- including heterosexuals.  And, another thing I've noticed about the majority of homosexuals is that they're generally far more open-minded, possibly because of this difference.

My wish is not to begin a flame war, but to remind us all that in order for our species and planet to survive, we must learn -- not only tolerance but -- acceptance of the differences of others.  And that includes not only another's religion, but their sexual orientation as well. 

© 2006-2007 Kat Starwolf  All Rights Reserved

Kat Starwolf is a practicing relationship and empathic counseling astrologer, researcher, metaphysician and avid reader of anything pertaining to human inter-relatedness, emotions, sexuality, sociology and psychology.  She is also currently working on her degree in counseling psychology.  Presently she lives in Tallahassee, Florida, but will soon be relocating to her hometown, Albuquerque, New Mexico.  She may be contacted at 400 Capital Circle SE, Suite 18-255, Tallahassee, Florida  32301, by phone at 850-980-0250 or via her website, http://www.starwolfastrology.com